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Knights of Columbus

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[[The Knights of Columbus emblem consists of a shield mounted on a formée cross. Mounted on the shield are a fasces, an anchor, and a dagger.|250px]]
Emblem of the Knights of Columbus

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The Knights of Columbus (K of C) is a global Catholic fraternal service order founded by Blessed Michael J. McGivney on March 29, 1882.[1][2] Membership is composed of (and limited to) practicing Catholic men.[3] It is led by Supreme Knight Sir Carl A. Anderson.[3] On February 5, 2021, the Knights of Columbus Board of Directors elected Patrick E. Kelly as the order's 14th Supreme Knight. He will assume office on March 1, 2021.[4]

The organization was founded in 1882 as a mutual benefit society for working-class and immigrant Catholics in the United States. It has grown to support refugee relief, Catholic education, local parishes and dioceses, and global Catholic causes.[1][5][6][7] The Knights promote the Catholic view on public policy issues, including opposition to same-sex marriage,[8] abortion,[9] and birth control.[10] Between 2008 and 2012, K of C gave at least $15 million to lobbies opposed to same-sex marriage.[8]

The organization provides certain financial services to affiliated groups and individuals.[11] Its wholly owned insurance company, one of the largest in the world, underwrites more than two million insurance contracts, totaling more than $100 billion of life insurance in force.[12] The order also owns the Knights of Columbus Asset Advisors, a money management firm which invests in accordance with Catholic social teachings.

As of 2019, there were nearly two million members around the world.[13][14][15] Women may participate in K of C through the Columbiettes and other female auxiliaries, and boys may join the Columbian Squires. The Order comprises four different "degrees", each one of which exemplifies one of the core principles of the order.[1] There are more than 16,000 local Knights of Columbus councils around the world,[14] including over 300 on college campuses.[16][17]

History[]

Main article: History of the Knights of Columbus

Early years[]

A painting of the Michael J. McGivney.

Michael J. McGivney, founder of the Knights of Columbus

NewHavenStMarys

St. Mary's Church

American Catholic priest Michael J. McGivney founded the Knights of Columbus in 1882 as a mutual benefit society for Catholic immigrants in New Haven, Connecticut.[18][19] [20][21]

Early 20th century[]

During World War I, the Knights established soldiers' welfare centers in the U.S. and abroad.[22] After the war, the Knights participated in education, occupational training, and employment programs for veterans.[23]

See him through--Help us to help the boys

The Oregon Compulsory Education Act of 1922 would have disallowed parochial schools, including Catholic schools, in that state.[24][25][26] The Knights of Columbus challenged the law in court,[27] and, in a landmark 1925 ruling (Pierce v. Society of Sisters), the U.S. Supreme Court struck it down.[28]

In the 1920s, to combat animus targeted at racial and religious minorities, the organization published a series of three books: "Knights of Columbus Racial Contributions Series": The Gift of Black Folk, by W. E. B. Du Bois, The Jews in the Making of America by George Cohen, and The Germans in the Making of America by Frederick Schrader.[29]

During the nadir of American race relations, the Ku Klux Klan promoted a conspiracy theory claiming that Fourth Degree Knights swore an oath to exterminate Freemasons and Protestants.[30][31][32][33] The Knights began suing distributors for libel in an effort to stop this, and the KKK ended its publication of the false oath.[34]

Recent history[]

According to Church historian Massimo Faggioli, the Knights of Columbus are today "'an extreme version' of a post-Vatican II phenomenon, the rise of discrete lay groups that have become centers of power themselves".[7]

Degrees[]

The order is dedicated to the principles (Degrees) of charity, unity, fraternity, and patriotism.[35] The first ritual handbook, printed in 1885, contained only the first two Degrees teaching unity and charity. Assemblies may form color guards, which are often the most visible arm of the Knights, to attend important civic and church events.[36]

Charitable giving[]

Main article: Charitable activities of the Knights of Columbus

The Knights of Columbus states that charity is its most important principle.[37][38] Beginning in 1897, the National Council encouraged local councils to establish funds to support members affected by the 1890s depression.[39] Aid was also dispensed to assist victims of natural and man-made disasters in the early 20th century.[40][41] Councils also offered employment agency services and provided aid to the poor and sick as well as people burdened with intellectual disability.[42][43][44] At their 2019 convention, Supreme Knight Carl Anderson said that the organization had donated $185 million and 76 million volunteer hours toward charity projects in 2018.[45] Charitable activities include support for refugees, aid for victims of natural disasters, and advocating Catholic ethics, such as opposition to same-sex marriage and abortion. After the Knights had donated more than 1,000 ultrasound machines to crisis pregnancy center from 2009-2019, Anderson said "Our ultrasound initiative is now the greatest humanitarian achievement in the history of the Knights of Columbus. ... We can, and I am confident that we will, save millions of unborn lives."[46]

Membership[]

See also: History of the Knights of Columbus and The Catholic University of America
Knights of Columbus headquarters straightened

Knights of Columbus headquarters

Membership is restricted to adult male Catholics.[45] As of 2020, there were 2 million knights.[47][48] Each member belongs to one of more than 16,000 local "councils" around the world.[14][49] The college councils program started with the chartering of University of Notre Dame Council #1477 in 1910.[50] As of 2018, there are more than 300 college councils.[16][17]

Corporate governance[]

See also: Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus

The Supreme Council is the governing body of the order. It elects insurance members to serve three-year terms on a 24-member Board of Directors.[51][52] Leaders' salaries are set by the board of directors and ratified by the delegates to the Supreme Convention.[53] The seven-figure salaries of senior K of C officers have been criticized as excessive.[53][54][55][7] In 1969, the Knights opened a 23-story headquarters building in New Haven.[56][57]

Promotion of the Catholic faith[]

Efforts against religious discrimination[]

Further information: History of the Knights of Columbus and The Catholic University of America#Chair of American History
Knights of Columbus check presentation to The Catholic University of America

The Knights of Columbus presented a check to The Catholic University of America on the steps of the university's McMahon Hall in 1904 to establish a Chair of American History.

Since its earliest days, the Knights of Columbus has been a "Catholic anti-defamation society".[58] In 1914, it established a Commission on Religious Prejudices.[58] As part of the effort, the order distributed pamphlets, and lecturers toured the country speaking on how Catholics could love and be loyal to America.[59]

The creation of the 4th Degree, with its emphasis on patriotism, performed an anti-defamation function as well as asserting claims to Americanism.[60][61] In response to a defamatory "bogus oath" circulated by the KKK,[62] in 1914 the Knights set up a framework for a lecture series and educational programs to combat anti-Catholic sentiment.[63]

New evangelization[]

The Knights have been urged to take a prominent role in the new evangelization.[64] The CIS published a series on the new evangelization in 2011,[65] and donations to other Catholic mass communication services represent one of the Knights' major expenditures.[66] The Knights have also established councils in both secular and Catholic universities.[67]

Political activity[]

Main article: Political activity of the Knights of Columbus

While the Knights were active politically from an early date, in the years following the Second Vatican Council, as the "Catholic anti-defamation character" of the order began to diminish as Catholics became more accepted, the leadership began to use its financial resources to directly influence the direction of the Church.[7] That led to the creation of a "variety of new programs reflecting the proliferation of the new social ministries of the church".[68][7]

The leadership of the order has been, at times, both liberal and conservative. Martin H. Carmody and Luke E. Hart were both political conservatives, but John J. Phelan was a Democratic politician prior to becoming Supreme Knight,[69] John Swift's "strong support for economic democracy and social-welfare legislation marks him as a fairly representative New Deal anti-communist,"[70] and Francis P. Matthews was a civil rights official and member of Harry Truman's cabinet. The current Supreme Knight, Carl A. Anderson, previously served in Ronald Reagan's White House.

The Knights of Columbus is classified by the IRS as a 501(c)(8) fraternal benefit society. Unlike the more common 501(c)(3) nonprofits, 501(c)(8)s are allowed to engage in limited direct political activity without jeopardizing their tax exemptions.[71] However, Supreme Knight Carl Anderson has said “One of our most important traditions throughout our 125-year history is that we do not, as an organization, become involved in partisan politics."[72]

The Knights of Columbus support political awareness and activity among their membership and local councils. Public policy activity is limited to issue-specific campaigns, typically dealing with Catholic family and sanctity of life issues.[73][45] They state that

In addition to performing charitable works, the Knights of Columbus encourages its members to meet their responsibilities as Catholic citizens and to become active in the political life of their local communities, to vote and to speak out on the public issues of the day. ... In the political realm, this means opening our public policy efforts and deliberations to the life of Christ and the teachings of the Church. In accord with our Bishops, the Knights of Columbus has consistently maintained positions that take these concerns into account. The order supports and promotes the social doctrine of the Church, including a robust vision of religious liberty that embraces religion's proper role in the private and public spheres.[73]

The order opposed persecution of Catholics in Mexico during the Cristero War,[74] and opposed communism.[75][76] Also during the 20th century, the order established the Commission on Religious Prejudices, and the Knights of Columbus Historical Commission which combated racism.[77] It was also supportive of trade unionism, and published the works "of the broad array of intellectuals", including George Schuster, Samuel Flagg Bemis, Allan Nevins, and W. E. B. DuBois.[77]

During the Cold War, the order had a history of anti-socialist, anti-communist crusades.[78] They lobbied to add "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance, as a religious response to Soviet atheism.[79][80] The Knights have been active opponents against the legal introduction of same-sex marriage and have been a key contributor in terms of funding to local measures.[8] The Knights have donated over Template:Currency to the Susan B. Anthony Foundation and other anti-abortion and anti-contraception organizations.[7][81]

Subsidiaries[]

Insurance[]

Under the initial insurance scheme devised by founder McGivney, a deceased Knight's widow was granted a Template:USD1,000 death benefit,[82] funded by a pro-rata contribution from the membership.[82][83] In addition, there was also a sick benefit for members who fell ill and could not work.[84]

Museum[]

A photograph of the façade of St

The cross from the façade of St. Peter's Basilica now resides in the Knights' museum.[85]

On March 10, 2001, the order opened a museum in New Haven dedicated to their history.[86][57] The 77,000 square foot building cost Template:Currency to renovate.[86] It holds mosaics on loan from the Vatican and gifts from Popes, the membership application from John F. Kennedy, and a number of other items related to the history of the Knights.[86] Near the entrance is the cross held by Jesus Christ on the facade of St. Peter's Basilica[86] before undergoing a Knights-financed renovation.[85][86]

Knights of Columbus Asset Advisors[]

In 2015, the order launched Knights of Columbus Asset Advisors, a money management firm which invests money in accordance with Catholic social teaching.[11][87] The firm uses the Socially Responsible Investment Guidelines published by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops to guide their investment decisions.[11][87] The guidelines include protecting human life, promoting human dignity, reducing arms production, pursuing economic justice, protecting the environment, and encouraging corporate responsibility.[lower-alpha 1][11]

In addition to the wholly owned subsidiary, it also purchased 20% of Boston Advisors, a boutique investment management firm, managing assets for institutional and high-net-worth investors.[11][89] Knights of Columbus Asset Advisors manages the fixed-income strategies for their funds while Boston Advisors sub-advises on the equity strategies.[11][89] Knights of Columbus Asset Advisors also offers model portfolio, outsourced CIO[clarification needed] services, a bank loan strategy, and other alternative investment strategies.[11] In 2019, the Knights purchased the institutional management business of Boston Advisors.[89]

Saint John Paul II National Shrine[]

Main article: Saint John Paul II National Shrine

The order owns and operates the Saint John Paul II National Shrine in Washington D.C.[7] In 2011, the Order purchased the 130,000-square-foot John Paul II Cultural Center.[90][91][7] The mission as a cultural center ended in 2009[92] and the Knights rebranded it as a shrine to Pope John Paul II.[90][91] Soon after the pope was canonized, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops named the building a national shrine.[92]

Each year 64,000 pilgrims visit the shrine, which features video content, interactive displays, and personal effects from John Paul.[92] There is also a first class relic of the pope's blood on display for veneration.[92] It also serves as a base for the Order in Washington, D.C.[93]

Notable Knights[]

Main article: List of Knights of Columbus
A photograph of President John F

President John F. Kennedy was a Fourth Degree member of Bunker Hill Council No. 62.[94]

Many notable Catholic men from all over the world have been Knights of Columbus. In the United States, some of the most notable include John F. Kennedy; Ted Kennedy;[95] Al Smith;[96] Sargent Shriver;[97] Samuel Alito; John Boehner;[98] Ray Flynn;[99] Jeb Bush;[100] and Sergeant Major Daniel Daly,[101] a two-time Medal of Honor recipient.[102]

In the world of sports, Vince Lombardi, the famed former coach of the Green Bay Packers;[103] James Connolly, the first Olympic gold medal champion in modern times;[104] Floyd Patterson, former heavyweight boxing champion;[105] and baseball legend Babe Ruth[106] were all knights.

On October 15, 2006, Bishop Rafael Guizar Valencia (1878–1938) was canonized by Pope Benedict XVI in Rome. In 2000, six other Knights, who were killed in the violence following the Mexican Revolution, were declared saints by Pope John Paul II.[107]

Emblem of the order[]

The emblem of the order was designed by Past Supreme Knight James T. Mullen and adopted at the second Supreme Council meeting on May 12, 1883.[108] Shields used by medieval knights served as the inspiration. The emblem consists of a shield mounted on a Formée cross, which is an artistic representation of the cross of Christ. This represents the Catholic identity of the order.[109]Template:Primary source inline

Mounted on the shield are three objects: the fasces, an anchor, and a dagger. In ancient Rome, the fasces was carried before magistrates as an emblem of authority. The order uses it as "symbolic of authority which must exist in any tightly-bonded and efficiently operating organization".[109]Template:Primary source inline The anchor represents Christopher Columbus, admiral under the orders of the kings of Spain and patron of this partnership, here a symbol of the Catholic contribution to America.[110] The short sword, or dagger, was a weapon used by medieval knights. The shield as a whole, with the letters "K of C", represents "Catholic Knighthood in organized merciful action".[109]Template:Primary source inline

Auxiliary groups[]

Women's auxiliaries[]

Many councils also have women's auxiliaries. At the turn of the 20th century, two were formed by local councils, each taking the name Daughters of Isabella.[111][112] They expanded and issued charters to other circles but never merged. The newer organization renamed itself the Catholic Daughters of the Americas in 1921, and both have structures independent of the Knights of Columbus.[113][114] Other groups are known as the Columbiettes.[111] In the Philippines, the ladies' auxiliary is known as the Daughters of Mary Immaculate.[115]

A proposal in 1896 to establish councils for women did not pass and was never proposed again.[116]

Columbian Squires[]

Main article: Columbian Squires

The Knights' official junior organization is the Columbian Squires. According to McDonald, "The supreme purpose of the Columbian Squires is character building."[117]

It was founded in 1925 in Duluth, Minnesota, by Brother Barnabas McDonald, F.S.C..[118][119][120] The formation of new Squire Circles in the United States and Canada is discouraged as the Order desires to move youth activities from exclusive clubs into the local parish youth groups.[120]

Similar Christian organizations[]

The Knights of Columbus is a member of the International Alliance of Catholic Knights, which includes fifteen fraternal orders such as the Knights of Saint Columbanus in Ireland, the Knights of Saint Columba in the United Kingdom, the Knights of Peter Claver in the United States, the Knights of the Southern Cross in Australia and New Zealand, the Knights of Marshall in Ghana, the Knights of Da Gama in South Africa, and the Knights of Saint Mulumba in Nigeria.[121]

The Loyal Orange Institution, also known as the Orange Order, is a similar organization for Protestant Christians.[122][123]

See also[]

  • Columbus Fountain
  • Columbus School of Law
  • Father Millet Cross
  • James Cardinal Gibbons Memorial Statue
  • Knights of Columbus Hostel fire
  • List of Knights of Columbus buildings
  • List of Massachusetts State Deputies of the Knights of Columbus
  • Manuscripta
  • Parish Priest (book)
  • Pope John Paul II Cultural Center

Notes[]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named rundio
  2. ↑ Hubbard & Hubbard 2019, p. 75.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Knights of Columbus: Join us". http://www.kofc.org/en/join/prospective.html. 
  4. ↑ "Knights of Columbus elect Patrick Kelly next Supreme Knight". Catholic News Agency. https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/knights-of-columbus-elect-patrick-kelly-next-supreme-knight. 
  5. ↑ Hearn 1910.
  6. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named arce
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named financial
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named McElwee
  9. ↑ Kathryn Jean Lopez (December 9, 2019). "Kamala Harris Learns the Hard Way: Lay Off the Knights of Columbus". https://www.nationalreview.com/2019/12/kamala-harris-attack-on-knights-of-columbus-harmed-campaign/. 
  10. ↑ "25 Dangers of Hormonal Birth Control". https://issuu.com/columbia-magazine/docs/columbiajul18en. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named comtois
  12. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named 100b
  13. ↑ Hubbard & Hubbard 2019, p. 76.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named hadro
  15. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named garcia
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named califon
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named ash
  18. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 18.
  19. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named glenn
  20. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 13–14.
  21. ↑ Brinkley & Fenster 2006, p. 51.
  22. ↑ Flanagan 2017.
  23. ↑ Kauffman 1995.
  24. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named pierce
  25. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named oregon
  26. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 282.
  27. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 283.
  28. ↑ Alley 1999, pp. 41–44.
  29. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 269–270.
  30. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 171.
  31. ↑ Fry 1922, pp. 109–116.
  32. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 176.
  33. ↑ Mecklin 2013.
  34. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 277.
  35. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Knestout
  36. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Borowski
  37. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named LeRouxFeeney2014
  38. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named McGrath2010
  39. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 127.
  40. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 161.
  41. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named tampa
  42. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 428.
  43. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 166–67.
  44. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 320.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named jean
  46. ↑ Klemond, Susan (2019-08-13). "Supreme Knight Carl Anderson highlights Knights' efforts worldwide". National Catholic Reporter. Catholic News Service. https://www.ncronline.org/news/people/supreme-knight-carl-anderson-highlights-knights-efforts-worldwide. 
  47. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named mares
  48. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named remembered
  49. ↑ Connecticut Insurance Department 2018, p. 2.
  50. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named urges
  51. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 375–376.
  52. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named et
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named pay
  54. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named tablet9719
  55. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named TP_Israel
  56. ↑ Hubbard & Hubbard 2019, p. 76–77.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named clark
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Kauffman 1982, p. 153.
  59. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 185.
  60. ↑ Salvaterra 2002.
  61. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 138–143.
  62. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 169–175.
  63. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 178.
  64. ↑ Bauman, Michelle (2012-08-07). "Knights of Columbus called to be in front ranks of New Evangelization" (in en). Catholic News Agency. https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/knights-of-columbus-called-to-be-in-front-ranks-of-new-evangelization. 
  65. ↑ "Catholic Information Service to Launch Series on the New Evangelization". www.kofc.org. 2011-11-29. http://www.kofc.org/en/news/releases/new_evangelization.html. 
  66. ↑ Roberts, Tom (2017-05-15). "Knights of Columbus' financial forms show wealth, influence" (in en). National Catholic Reporter. https://www.ncronline.org/news/accountability/knights-columbus-financial-forms-show-wealth-influence. 
  67. ↑ Wuerl, Cardinal Donald (2013). "Preface" (in en). New Evangelization: Passing on the Catholic Faith Today. Our Sunday Visitor. p. Preface. ISBN 978-1-61278-302-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=6Gn8CwAAQBAJ&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&lpg=PT7. Retrieved 2019-12-15. 
  68. ↑ Kauffman 1982.
  69. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 62.
  70. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 367.
  71. ↑ IRC 501(c)(8) Fraternal Benefit Societies. Accessed 10-29-2020
  72. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named issues
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named policy
  74. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 302.
  75. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 364–365.
  76. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Ceplair
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 Kauffman 1982, pp. 366–367.
  78. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 366.
  79. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Bremer
  80. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Greenberg
  81. ↑ How One Religious Organization Bankrolls America's Social Conservative Movement
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 Kauffman 1982, p. 22.
  83. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 36–37.
  84. ↑ Brinkley & Fenster 2006, p. 123.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Rome
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 86.3 86.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named newhaven
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named sturdevant
  88. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named sri
  89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named pionline
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named purchase
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named cultural
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 92.3 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named explore
  93. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named center
  94. ↑ Singular 2005, p. 60.
  95. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 393–394.
  96. ↑ Singular 2005, p. 38.
  97. ↑ Singular 2005, p. 94.
  98. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Boehner
  99. ↑ Singular 2005, p. 114.
  100. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named jeb
  101. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named famous
  102. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named iconic
  103. ↑ Singular 2005, p. 64.
  104. ↑ Singular 2005, p. 4.
  105. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Patterson
  106. ↑ Singular 2005, p. 30.
  107. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named canonized
  108. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 34–35.
  109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named emblem
  110. ↑ Appelbaum, Yoni (2012-10-08). "How Columbus Day Fell Victim to Its Own Success" (in en). The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2012/10/how-columbus-day-fell-victim-to-its-own-success/261922/. 
  111. ↑ 111.0 111.1 Kauffman 1982, p. 125.
  112. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named isabella
  113. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named cda
  114. ↑ Kauffman 1982, pp. 125–126.
  115. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named dmi
  116. ↑ Kauffman 1982, p. 126.
  117. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named roadrunner
  118. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named encyclopedia
  119. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named manhattan
  120. ↑ 120.0 120.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named DeLorme
  121. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named iack
  122. ↑ Kaufmann 2007, p. 315.
  123. ↑ Marchildon 2009, p. 8.

External links[]

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  • Father Michael J. McGivney Guild

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