Jewish Messiah claimants

The Messiah in Judaism (Hebrew: "The Anointed One") included Jewish Priests, prophets, and kings, such as David and Cyrus the Great. Later, after the failure of the Hasmonean Kingdom (37 BCE) and the Jewish-Roman Wars (66-135 CE), the figure of the Jewish Messiah was one who would deliver the Jews from oppression and usher in an Olam HaBa (Hebrew: "World to come") or Messianic Age.

Some people were looking forward to a military leader who would defeat the Seleucid or Roman enemies and establish an independent Jewish Kingdom. Others, like the author of the Psalms of Solomon, stated that the Messiah was a charismatic teacher who would give the direct interpretation of Mosaic Law, restore the Monarchy of Israel, and judge mankind.

This is a list of notable people who have been said to be the Messiah ben David, either by themselves or by their followers. The list is divided into categories, which are sorted according to date of birth (where known).

List of Jewish messiah claimants

• Judas of Galilee (c. 4 BCE), discussed in the Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament and by 1st century historian Josephus in Jewish Wars and Antiquities of the Jews. Judas led a violent resistance against the Census of Quirinius hat was to be imposed for tax purposes. The revolt was ultimately unsuccessful, as detailed in the Book of Acts and the aforementioned writings of Josephus.
• Simon of Peraea (c. 4 BCE), a former slave of Herod the Great who rebelled and was killed by the Romans some time after Herod's death in 4 BC.
• Athronges (c. 4-2? BCE), leader of a rebellion with his four brothers against Archelaus and the Romans after proclaiming himself the Messiah. He and his brothers were eventually defeated.
• Jesus of Nazareth (4 BC-AD 30 or 33), in the Roman province of Judaea. Jews who believed him to be the Messiah were the first Christians. It is estimated that there are between 1.5 and 2 billion Christians in the world today, making Jesus of Nazareth the most widely followed Messiah claimant.
• Theudas (died 46 AD), a Jewish rebel of the 1st Century AD.
• Menahem ben Judah (CE), son of Judas of Galilee and grandson of Hezekiah, who partook in a revolt against Agrippa II in Judea.
• Simon bar Kokhba (died 135 CE), defeated in the Bar Kokhba revolt.
• Moses of Crete (5th Century AD), a Jewish Messiah claimant and apocalyptic prophet.
• Abu Isa al-Isfahani (8th Century CE), lived in Persia during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (684-705).
• Yudghan (8th Century CE), lived and taught in Persia in the early 8th Century disciple of Abu Isa al-Isfahani
• Serenus (c. 720), the Syrian born to a Christian.
• David Alroy (c. 1160), a Jewish Messiah claimant born in Amadiya, Iraq.
• Abraham Abulafia (b. 1240), the founder of the "School of Prophetic Kabbalah."
• Nissim ben Abraham, active in Avila around 1295.
• Moses Botarel (c. 1413), a Spanish scholar who was a pupil of Jacob Sefardi (the Spaniard), who instructed him in the Kabbalah.
• Asher Lammlien (a.k.a. Asher Kay) (1502), a German Jew in Istra, near Venice.
• David Reubeni (1490-1535/1541?), a Jewish political activist.
• Solomon Molcho (1500-1532), a Portuguese Jewish mystic.
• Sabbatai Zevi (1626-1676), an Ottoman Jewish mystic, and ordained rabbi from Turkey.
• Barukhia Russo (Osman Baba) (1695-1740), successor of Sabbatai Zevi.
• Abraham Miguel Cardoso (1626-1706), a Sabbatian prophet and physician born in Rio Seco, Spain.
• Mordecai Mokiah (1650-1729) ("The Rebuker"), of Eisenstadt (active 1678-1683)
• Jacob Querido (1650-1690), successor of the self-proclaimed Jewish Messiah Sabbatai Zevi.
• Judah Leib Prossnitz (1670-1730/1750), a Kabbalist born at Uhersky Brod, Moravia.
• Jacob Frank (1726-1791), a Polish-Jewish religious leader who claimed to be the reincarnation of Sabbatai Zevi and the Biblical Patriarch of Jacob. He is the founder of Frankism.
• Shukr Kuhayl I (died 1865), a Yemenite Messianic claimant.
• Judah ben Shalom (a.k.a. Shukr Kuhayl II) (died 1878), a Yemenite Messianic claimant.
• Menachem Mendel Schneerson (1902-1994), a 20th Century Chabad Lubavitcher Rebbe and charismatic leader, who is believed to be the Messiah by many of his adherents.

Menahem ben Judah

Menahem ben Judah, the son of Judas of Galilee and grandson of Hezekiah, the leader of the Zealots, who had troubled Herod, was a warrior. When the war broke out he attacked Masada with his band, armed his followers with the weapons stored there, and proceeded to Jerusalem where he captured the fortress Antonia, overpowering the troops of Agrippa II. Emboldened by his success, he behaved as a king, and claimed the leadership of all the troops. Thereby he aroused the enmity of Eleazar, another Zealot leader, and met death because of a conspiracy against him. He is probably identical with the Menahem ben Hezekiah mentioned in the Talmud (tractate Sanhedrin 98b) and called "The comforter that should relieve."

Simon bar Kokhba

With the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem the appearance of messiahs ceased for a time. Sixty years later a politico-Messianic movement of large proportions took place with Simon bar Kokhba at its head. This leader of the revolt against Rome was hailed as Messiah-king by Rabbi Akiva, who referred to him, Numbers xxiv. 17: "There shall come forth a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite through the corners of Moab," and Hag. ii. 21, 22; "I will shake the heavens and the earth and I will overthrow the thrones of kingdoms. . . ." (Talmud tractate Sanhedrin 97b). Although some doubted his messiahship, he seems to have carried the nation with him for his undertaking. After stirring up a war (133-135) that taxed the power of Rome, he at last met his death on the walls of Bethar. His Messianic movement ended in defeat and misery for the survivors.

Moses of Crete

The unsuccessful issue of the Bar Kokhba revolt put an end for centuries to Messianic movements, but Messianic hopes were nonetheless cherished. In accordance with a computation found in the Talmud, the Messiah was expected in 440 (Sanh. 97b) or 471 ('Ab. Zarah 9b). This expectation in connection with the disturbances in the Roman empire attendant upon invasions may have raised up the Messiah who appeared about this time in Crete, and who won over the Jewish population to his movement. He called himself Moses, and promised to lead the people, like the ancient Moses, dry-shod through the sea back to Palestine. His followers, convinced by him, left their possessions and waited for the promised day, when at his command many cast themselves into the sea, some finding death, others being rescued. The pseudo-Messiah himself disappeared (Socrates, "Historia Ecclesiastica," vii. 38; Grätz, "Gesch." 3d ed., iv. 354-355). Socrates states that Moses of Crete fled, while the Chronicle of John of Nikiu claims that he perished in the sea. While he called himself Moses, the Chronicle gives his actual name as 'Fiskis' (John of Nikiu, "Chronicle," LXXXVI.1-11).

In 7th Century Persia

The pseudo-Messiahs that followed played their roles in the Orient, and were at the same time religious reformers whose work influenced Karaism. At the end of the 7th Century appeared in Persia Abu Isa al-Isfahani. He lived in the reign of the Umayyad Caliphate 'Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (684-705). He claimed to be the last of the five forerunners of the Messiah and to have been appointed by God to free Israel. According to some he was himself the Messiah. Having gathered a large number of followers, he rebelled against the caliph, but was defeated and slain at Rai. His followers claimed that he was inspired and urged as proof of the fact that he wrote books, although he was ignorant of reading and writing. He founded the first sect that arose in Judaism after the destruction of the Temple.

His disciple, Yudghan called Al-ra'i (Arabic: "The shepherd of the flock of his people"), who lived in the first half of the 8th Century, declared himself to be a Prophet, and was by his disciples regarded as a Messiah. He came from Hamadan, and taught doctrines which he claimed to have received through prophecy. According to Shahristani, he opposed the belief in anthropomorphism, taught the doctrine of free will, and held that the Torah had an allegorical meaning in addition to its literal one. He admonished his followers to lead an ascetic life, to abstain from meat and wine, and to pray and fast often, following his master Abu Isa al-Isfahani. He held that the observance of the Sabbath and festivals was merely a matter of memorial. After his death his followers formed a sect, the Yudghanites, who believed that their Messiah had not died, but would return.

The Syrian Serene

Between 720 and 723 a Syrian, Serenus appeared as the Messiah. The immediate occasion for his appearance may have been the restriction of the liberties of the Jews by the caliph Umar II (717-720) and his proselytizing efforts. On the political side, this Messiah promised the expulsion of the Muslims and the restoration of the Jews to the Holy Land. He had followers even in Spain, where the Jews were suffering under the oppressive taxation of their new Arab rulers, and many left their homes for the New Messiah. Like Abu Isa al-Isfahani and Yudghan, Serene also was a religious reformer. He was hostile to Rabbinic Judaism. His followers disregarded the kosher dietary laws, the rabbinically instituted prayers, and the prohibition against the "wine of libation." They worked on the second day of the festivals, they did not write marriage and divorce documents according to Talmudic prescriptions, and did not accept the Talmudic prohibition against the marriage of near relatives (see Gratz, l.c. note 14). Serenus was arrested, and brought before Caliph Yazid II, he declared that he had acted only in jest, whereupon he was handed over to the Jews for punishment. His followers were received back into the fold upon giving up their heresy.

Messiahs During the Crusades

Under the influence of the Crusades the number of Messiahs increased, and the twelfth century records many of them. One appeared in France (c. 1087) and was slain by the French. Another appeared in the province of Cordoba (c. 1117), and one in Fez (c. 1127). Of these three nothing is known beyond the mention of them in Maimonides' "The Epistle to Yemen."

David Alroy

The next important Messianic movement appears again in Persia. David Alroy, who was born in Kurdistan, about 1160 declared himself a Messiah. Taking advantage of his personal popularity, the disturbed and weakened condition of the caliphate, and the discontent of the Jews, who were burdened with a heavy poll tax, he set out upon his political schemes, asserting that he had been sent by God to free the Jews from the Muslim yoke and to lead them back to Jerusalem. For this purpose, he summoned the warlike Jews of the neighboring district of Azerbaijan and his coreligionists of Mosul and Baghdad to come armed to his aid and to assist in the capture of Amadia. From this point his career is enveloped in legend. His movement failed, and he is said to have been assassinated, while asleep, by his own father-in-law. A heavy fine was exacted from the Jews for this uprising. After his death Alroy had many followers in Khof, Salmas, Tauris, and Maragha, and these formed a sect called the Menahemists, from the Messianic name "Menahem," assumed by their founder.

In Yemen

Soon after, David Alroy, an alleged forerunner of the Messiah, appeared in Yemen in 1172, just when the Muslims were making determined efforts to convert the Jews living there. He declared the misfortunes of the time to be prognostications of the coming Messianic Kingdom, and called upon the Jews to divide their property with the poor. This anonymous pseudo-Messiah was the subject of Maimonides' "The Epistle to Yemen." He continued his activity for a year, when he was arrested by the Muslim authorities and beheaded at his own suggestion. It is said, in order that he might prove the truth of his mission by returning to life.

Abraham Abulafia

With Abraham ben Samuel Abulafia (b. 1240; d. after 1291), the Kabbalist, begin the pseudo-Messiahs whose activity is deeply influenced by their cabalistic speculations. Because of his mystic studies, Abulafia came to believe first that he was a prophet; and in a prophetic book, which he published in Urbino (1279), he declared that God had spoken to him. It is thought, though not proven, that in Messina, on the Island of Sicily, where he was well received, and won disciples, he declared himself the Messiah and announced 1290 as the year for the Messianic era to begin. Solomon ben Adret, who was appealed with regard to Abulafia's claims, condemned him, and some congregations declared against him. Persecuted in Sicily, he went to the island of Comino, near Malta (c. 1288), still asserting in his writings his mission. His end is unknown. Two of his disciples, Joseph Gikatilla and Samuel, both from Medinaceli, later claimed to be prophets and miracle-workers. The latter foretold in mystic language at All on in Segovia the advent of the Messiah.

Abulafia gained much modern notoriety as a the name for the computer of a character in Umberto Eco's novel, "Foucault's Pendulum."

Nissim ben Abraham

Another individual making claims of prophethood was Nissim ben Abraham, active in Avila. His followers told him that, although ignorant, he had been suddenly endowed, by an angel, with the power to write a mystic work, "The Wonder of Wisdom," with a commentary thereon. Again, an appeal was made to Solomon ben Adret, who doubted Nissim's prophetic pretension and urged careful investigation. The prophet continued his activity, nevertheless, and even fixed the last day of the fourth month, 1295 Tammuz, as the date for the Messiah's coming. The credulous prepared for the event by fasting and almsgiving, and came together on the appointed day. Instead of finding the Messiah, some saw on their garments little crosses, perhaps pinned on by unbelievers to ridicule the movement. In their disappointment, some of Nissim's followers are said to have gone over to Christianity. What became of him is unknown.

Moses Botarel

After the lapse of a century another false Messiah came forward with Messianic pretensions. According to H. Gratz (l.c. viii. 404), this pretended Messiah is to be identified with Moses Botarel. One of his adherents and partisans was Hasdai Crescas. Their relation is referred to by Geronimo da Santa Fe in his speech during the disputation in Tortosa 1413.

Asher Lammlien

In 1502, Asher Lammlien, a German Jew proclaiming himself a forerunner of the Messiah, appeared in Istria, near Venice, and announced that if the Jews would be penitent and practice charity the Messiah would come within half a year, and a pillar of cloud and of smoke would precede the Jews on their return to Jerusalem. He found believers in Italy and Germany, even among the Christians. In obedience to his preaching, people fasted and prayed and gave alms to prepare for the coming of the Messiah, so that the year came to be known as the "year of penitence." However, the "Messiah" either died or disappeared.

David Reuveni and Solomon Molko

David Reuveni pretended to be the ambassador and brother of the King of Khaibar, a town and former district of Arabia, in which the descendants of the "Lost Tribes of Reuben and Gad" were supposed to dwell. He claimed he was sent to the Pope and the powers of Europe to secure cannon and firearms for war against the Muslims, who prevented the union of the Jews living on the two sides of the Red Sea. He denied expressly that he was a Messiah or a prophet claiming that he was merely a warrior. The credence which he found at the papal court in 1524, the reception accorded to him in 1525 at the Portuguese court (whither he came at the invitation of John III, and where he at first received the promise of help), the temporary cessation of persecution of the Marranos - all gave the Portuguese and Spanish Marranos reason to believe that Reuveni was a forerunner of the Messiah.

Selaya, inquisitor of Badajoz, complained to the King of Portugal that a Jew who had come from the Orient (referring to Reuveni) had filled the Spanish Marranos with the hope that the Messiah would come and lead Israel from all lands back to Palestine, and that he had even emboldened them to overt acts (comp. H. Gratz, l.c. ix. 532). Reuveni and Molko were arrested in Regensburg on the orders of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. Molko was taken to Mantua, in Italy, where he was tried and burned at the stake in November 1532.

A spirit of expectancy was aroused by Reuveni's stay in Portugal. In Herrera del Duque, close to Puebla de Alcocer (Badajoz, Extremadura), a girl of 15 described ecstatic visions in which she talked to the Messiah, who took her to Heaven where she saw all those who were burned seated in thrones of gold, and assured her of his near coming. She (only known for us as the Maiden of Herrera) was enthusiastically proclaimed a prophetess, and such was the commotion caused by her visions that the Toledo Inquisition had her promptly arrested and burned together with many of her followers.

Sabbatai Zevi

The most important messianic movement, and one whose influence was widespread throughout Jewry, lasting in some quarters over a century, was that of Sabbatai Zevi (b. at Smyrna 1626; d. at Dulcigno 1676).

Sabbathian Pseudo-Messiahs

After his death, Sabbatai was followed by a line of putative Messiahs. Jacob Querido, son of Joseph Filosof, and brother of the fourth wife of Sabbatai, became the head of the Shabbethaians in Salonica, being regarded by them as the incarnation of Shabbethai. He pretended to be Sabbathai's son and adopted the name Jacob Tzvi. With 400 followers he went over to Islam about 1687, forming a sect called the Donmeh. He himself even made a pilgrimage to Mecca (c. 1690). After his death during the pilgrimage his son Berechiah or Berokia succeeded him (c. 1695-1740).

A number of Sabbathai's followers declared themselves Messiahs. Abraham Miguel Cardoso, born of Marrano parents, may have been initiated into the Sabbathian movement by Moses Pinheiro in Leghorn. He became a Prophet of the Messiah, and when the latter embraced Islam he justified this treason, saying that it was necessary for the Messiah to be reckoned among the sinners in order to atone for Israel's idolatry. He applied Isa. liii. to Sabbathai, and sent out Epistles to prove Sabbathai was the true Messiah, and he even suffered persecution for advocating his cause. Later, he considered himself as the Ephraitic Messiah, asserting that he had marks on his body, which were proof of this. He preached and wrote of the speedy coming of the Messiah, fixing different dates until his death.

Mordecai Mokia

Another follower of Shabbethai who remained faithful to him, Mordecai Mokiaḥ ("the Rebuker") of Eisenstadt, also pretended to be a Messiah. His period of activity was from 1678 to 1682 or 1683. He preached at first that Shabbethai was the true Messiah, that his conversion was for mystic reasons necessary, that he did not die but would reveal himself within three years after his supposed death, and pointed to the persecution of the Jews in Oran (by Spain), in Austria, and in France, and to the pestilence in Germany as prognostications of his coming. He found a following among Hungarian, Moravian, and Bohemian Jews. Going a step further, he declared that he was the Davidic Messiah. Shabbethai, according to him, was only the Ephraitic Messiah and was furthermore rich, and therefore could not accomplish the redemption of Israel. He (Mordecai), being poor, was the real Messiah and at the same time the incarnation of the soul of the Ephraitic Messiah. Italian Jews heard of him and invited him to Italy. He went there about 1680, and received a warm welcome in Reggio and Modena. He spoke of Messianic preparations, which he had to make in Rome, and hinted at having perhaps to adopt Christianity outwardly. Denounced to the Inquisition, or advised to leave Italy, he returned to Bohemia, and then went to Poland, where he is said to have become insane. From his time a sect began to form there, which still existed at the beginning of the Mendelssohn era.

Another Sabbathian Messiah claimant was Judah Leib Prossnitz. He taught that God had given dominion of the world to the "Pious One," i.e., the one who had entered into the depths of Kabbalah. Such a representative of God had been Sabbathai, whose soul had passed into other "Pious" men into Jonathan Eybeschutz and into himself. Another, Isaiah Hasid (a brother-in-law of the Sabbathian Judah Hasid), who lived in Mannheim, secretly claimed to be the resurrected Messiah, although publicly he had abjured Sabbathian beliefs.

Jacob Frank

Jacob Frank (b. 1726 in Podolia; d. 1791), founder of the Frankists, also claimed to be the messiah. In his youth he had been brought into relation with the Dönmeh. He taught that he was a reincarnation of King David. Having secured a following between some Turkish and Wallachian Jews, he came in 1755 to Podolia, where the Shabbethaians were in need of a leader, and revealed himself to them as the reincarnation of the soul of Berechiah.

He laid stress on the idea of the "Holy King" who was at the same time Messiah, and he accordingly called himself "santo señor" ("holy lord"). His followers claimed he performed miracles; and they even prayed to him. His purpose, as well as that of his sect, was to uproot rabbinic Judaism. He was forced to leave Podolia; and his followers were persecuted. Returning in 1759, he advised his followers to embrace Christianity, and about 1,000 were converted and became privileged Polish gentry of Jewish origins. He himself was converted in Warsaw November 1759. Later his insincerity was exposed, and he was imprisoned as a heretic, remaining, however, even in prison the head of this sect.

Menachem Mendel Schneerson

Among the Chabad Lubavitch movement of Hasidic Judaism, there was a growing messianic fervor in the late 1980s and early 1990s due to the belief that their Rebbe, Menachem Mendel Schneerson was about to reveal himself to be the Messiah. Schneerson died in 1994 and some of his followers still believe he will be the messiah and will reveal himself when the time is right. A few years before he died, Rabbi Schneerson accepted a delegation of non-Hasidic Rabbis who came to ask him general and specific questions. One of the questions was if he was the Messiah. Rabbi Schneerson vehemently denied the assumption.

See also

• Messiah

Bibliography

• Note: For individual figures, please check the relevant entries where specified. This bibliography deals with the general concept and historical research related to Jewish messianism.
• Julius Greenstone: The Messianic Idea in Jewish History: Westport: Greenwood: 1972: ISBN 0-8371-2606-1
• Harris Lenowitz: Jewish Messiahs: From the Galilee to Crown Heights: New York: Oxford University Press: 1998: ISBN 0-19-511492-2
• Yehuda Liebes: Studies in Jewish Myth and Messianism: Albany: State University of New York Press: 1993: ISBN 0-7914-1194-X
• Jacob Neusner, William Scott Green and Ernest Francks (ed) Judaisms and Their Messiahs at the Turn of the Christian Era: New York: Cambridge University Press: 1987: ISBN 0-521-34146-9
• Raphael Patai: Messiah Texts: Detroit: Wayne State University Press: 1979: ISBN 0-8143-1652-2 Also: New York: Avon: 1979:ISBN 0-380-46482-9
• Jacob Schochet: Mashiach: The Principle of Mashiach in the Messianic Era in Jewish Law and Tradition: New York: SIE: 1992: ISBN 188140000X
• Gershom Scholem: The Messianic Idea in Judaism: New York: Schocken Books: 1995: 0805210431
• Robert Wolfe: Origins of the Messianic Idea: New York: JREP Print Center: 2003: ISBN 0-9642465-3-8

External links

• Introduction to Messianism
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Pseudo-Messiahs
• Will the Real Messiah Please Stand Up